An international comparison of gender differences in mental health among higher-education students during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: a multilevel design

Van de Velde, Sarah; De Cuyper, Anneleen; De Kort, Leen; Jacobs, Kimberly; Somogyi, Nikoletta; Tholen, Robert; Van Eekert, Nina; Buffel, Veerle

doi:10.1186/s13690-023-01211-2

Archives of Public Health

Table 1 Multilevel linear regression analyses results for gender differences in depressive feelings, controlling for the national level of stringency, for socio-demographic, socioeconomic, and academic factors, for COVID-19 related factors, and for relevant country-level control variables

From: An international comparison of gender differences in mental health among higher-education students during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: a multilevel design

		Model 1			Model 2			Model 3
		B	S.E.		B	S.E.		B	S.E.
Gender (ref. men)
Women		0.699	0.098	***	0.697	0.087	***	0.279	0.085	***
Stringency index		0.056	0.024	*	0.047	0.025	a	0.006	0.020
*Gender Stringency index**					0.018	0.008	*	0.012	0.008
Individual-level factors
Socio-demographic, socioeconomic, and academic factors
	Age (ref. 17–25)
	>=26	-0.557	0.093	***	-0.555	0.093	***	-0.261	0.085	**
	Migration status (ref. no)
	First generation migrant background	0.646	0.105	***	0.646	0.105	***	0.264	0.096	**
	Second generation migrant background	0.603	0.118	***	0.606	0.118	***	0.436	0.107	***
	Education parents (ref. High)
	Low educational background	0.406	0.136	**	0.406	0.136	**	-0.015	0.124
	Moderate educational background	0.248	0.082	**	0.248	0.082	**	-0.069	0.075
	Study program (ref. first-year bachelor)
	Bachelor (not in the first year)	0.218	0.094	*	0.217	0.094	*	-0.019	0.085
	Master program	-0.298	0.091	***	-0.300	0.091	***	0.060	0.083
	Other programs	-0.505	0.236	*	-0.504	0.236	*	-0.599	0.214	**
COVID-19 related factors
	Worries to get infected with COVID-19							0.198	0.011	***
	Academic stress							0.463	0.009	***
	Participation in social activities (ref. both online and face to face)
	No social activities							1.199	0.214	***
	Only face to face							0.109	0.181
	Only online							0.759	0.075	***
	Financial situation (ref. no change: not struggling)
	No change: struggling with financial resources							1.550	0.170	***
	Change: worse during covid							1.203	0.075	***
	Change: better during covid							0.558	0.126	***
Country-level control variables
	Timing survey (ref. After COVID-19 peak)
	Before the COVID-19 peak	0.335	0.62		0.323	0.631		0.217	0.495
	During the COVID-19 peak	-0.312	0.646		-0.259	0.657		-0.457	0.517
	Real GDP growth rate	-0.335	0.208		-0.352	0.212		-0.140	0.166
	Excess mortality rate	-1.842	2052		-1.907	2083		-0.955	1645
Variance
	Country level	0.863	0.322		0.920	0.335		0.539	0.207
	Random slope gender	0.074	0.063		0.028	0.048		0.043	0.045
	HEI level	0.582	0.138		0.582	0.138		0.376	0.095
	Individual-level	23.982	0.24		23.982	0.240		19.805	0.199
	-2LL	120692.2			120688.1			116837.6

* p < 0,05; **p < 0,01; *** p < 0,001

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ISSN: 2049-3258

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